2003
|
Nielsen, Kristian Fog Mycotoxin production by indoor molds Journal Article In: Fungal Genetics and Biology, vol. 39, no. 2, pp. 103 - 117, 2003, ISSN: 1087-1845. @article{FOGNIELSEN2003103,
title = {Mycotoxin production by indoor molds},
author = {Kristian Fog Nielsen},
url = {http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1087184503000264},
doi = {https://doi.org/10.1016/S1087-1845(03)00026-4},
issn = {1087-1845},
year = {2003},
date = {2003-01-01},
journal = {Fungal Genetics and Biology},
volume = {39},
number = {2},
pages = {103 - 117},
abstract = {Fungal growth in buildings starts at a water activity (aw) near 0.8, but significant quantities of mycotoxins are not produced unless aw reaches 0.95. Stachybotrys generates particularly high quantities of many chemically distinct metabolites in water-damaged buildings. These metabolites are carried by spores, and can be detected in air samples at high spore concentrations. Very little attention has been paid to major metabolites of Stachybotrys called spirocyclic drimanes, and the precise structures of the most abundant of these compounds are unknown. Species of Aspergillus and Penicillium prevalent in the indoor environment produce relatively low concentrations of mycotoxins, with the exception of sterigmatocystins that can represent up to 1% of the biomass of A. versicolor at aw’s close to 1. The worst-case scenario for homeowners is produced by consecutive episodes of water damage that promote fungal growth and mycotoxin synthesis, followed by drier conditions that facilitate the liberation of spores and hyphal fragments.},
keywords = {Penicillium, Spirocyclic drimanes, Trichothecenes},
pubstate = {published},
tppubtype = {article}
}
Fungal growth in buildings starts at a water activity (aw) near 0.8, but significant quantities of mycotoxins are not produced unless aw reaches 0.95. Stachybotrys generates particularly high quantities of many chemically distinct metabolites in water-damaged buildings. These metabolites are carried by spores, and can be detected in air samples at high spore concentrations. Very little attention has been paid to major metabolites of Stachybotrys called spirocyclic drimanes, and the precise structures of the most abundant of these compounds are unknown. Species of Aspergillus and Penicillium prevalent in the indoor environment produce relatively low concentrations of mycotoxins, with the exception of sterigmatocystins that can represent up to 1% of the biomass of A. versicolor at aw’s close to 1. The worst-case scenario for homeowners is produced by consecutive episodes of water damage that promote fungal growth and mycotoxin synthesis, followed by drier conditions that facilitate the liberation of spores and hyphal fragments. |
Methane — use and hazard defense: Meiners, H. et al. Glueckauf, 2002, 138, (7/8), 374–378. (In German) Journal Article In: Fuel and Energy Abstracts, vol. 44, no. 3, pp. 182, 2003, ISSN: 0140-6701. @article{2003182,
title = {Methane — use and hazard defense: Meiners, H. et al. Glueckauf, 2002, 138, (7/8), 374–378. (In German)},
url = {http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0140670103820064},
doi = {https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6701(03)82006-4},
issn = {0140-6701},
year = {2003},
date = {2003-01-01},
journal = {Fuel and Energy Abstracts},
volume = {44},
number = {3},
pages = {182},
keywords = {},
pubstate = {published},
tppubtype = {article}
}
|
2002
|
Salthammer, T; Bednarek, M; Fuhrmann, F; Funaki, R; Tanabe, S -I Formation of organic indoor air pollutants by UV-curing chemistry Journal Article In: Journal of Photochemistry and Photobiology A: Chemistry, vol. 152, no. 1, pp. 1 - 9, 2002, ISSN: 1010-6030. @article{SALTHAMMER20021,
title = {Formation of organic indoor air pollutants by UV-curing chemistry},
author = {T Salthammer and M Bednarek and F Fuhrmann and R Funaki and S -I Tanabe},
url = {http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1010603002002125},
doi = {https://doi.org/10.1016/S1010-6030(02)00212-5},
issn = {1010-6030},
year = {2002},
date = {2002-01-01},
journal = {Journal of Photochemistry and Photobiology A: Chemistry},
volume = {152},
number = {1},
pages = {1 - 9},
abstract = {UV-curable systems for manufacturing of furniture and parquet form a major and growing field in radiation curing. Numerous types and combinations of photoinitiators have been developed for crosslinking of acrylated systems and unsaturated polyesters. The properties of the photoinitiators being used in these materials must fulfill requirements like low toxicity, low odor and high reactivity. However, volatile reaction products being produced during the photochemical process contribute to the pollution of indoor air by emission from the surface and may cause strong odor and adverse health effects. Therefore, the release of photoinitiators, fragmentation products and monomers from UV-cured coatings was studied as a function of time under realistic living conditions in emission test chambers and cells. Main components detected in the chamber air were benzaldehyde, cyclohexanone, benzophenone and acrylate monomers. The area-specific emission rates SERA were found to be strongly dependent on the climatic conditions.},
keywords = {Acrylates, Degradation product, emission testing, Photoinitiator, Surface coatings, UV-curing},
pubstate = {published},
tppubtype = {article}
}
UV-curable systems for manufacturing of furniture and parquet form a major and growing field in radiation curing. Numerous types and combinations of photoinitiators have been developed for crosslinking of acrylated systems and unsaturated polyesters. The properties of the photoinitiators being used in these materials must fulfill requirements like low toxicity, low odor and high reactivity. However, volatile reaction products being produced during the photochemical process contribute to the pollution of indoor air by emission from the surface and may cause strong odor and adverse health effects. Therefore, the release of photoinitiators, fragmentation products and monomers from UV-cured coatings was studied as a function of time under realistic living conditions in emission test chambers and cells. Main components detected in the chamber air were benzaldehyde, cyclohexanone, benzophenone and acrylate monomers. The area-specific emission rates SERA were found to be strongly dependent on the climatic conditions. |
Reddy, James Successful construction under environmental regulations set to expand Asian market Journal Article In: Plastics, Additives and Compounding, vol. 4, no. 11, pp. 26 - 29, 2002, ISSN: 1464-391X. @article{REDDY200226,
title = {Successful construction under environmental regulations set to expand Asian market},
author = {James Reddy},
url = {http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1464391X02801763},
doi = {https://doi.org/10.1016/S1464-391X(02)80176-3},
issn = {1464-391X},
year = {2002},
date = {2002-01-01},
journal = {Plastics, Additives and Compounding},
volume = {4},
number = {11},
pages = {26 - 29},
abstract = {Over the past few years, the China and Southeast Asia region has experienced a major growth in the commercial construction and housing markets. With an increase in construction forecast to continue for several years, as well as the growing global movement towards the use of environmentally-friendly construction materials, Asia is a prime market for an increase in PVC products using new overbased calcium stabilizer technology for the construction industry, asserts James Reddy, global product manager, Plastics Additives of OM Group, Inc.},
keywords = {},
pubstate = {published},
tppubtype = {article}
}
Over the past few years, the China and Southeast Asia region has experienced a major growth in the commercial construction and housing markets. With an increase in construction forecast to continue for several years, as well as the growing global movement towards the use of environmentally-friendly construction materials, Asia is a prime market for an increase in PVC products using new overbased calcium stabilizer technology for the construction industry, asserts James Reddy, global product manager, Plastics Additives of OM Group, Inc. |
Niu, J L; Zhang, L Z; Wan, T K - The measurement of surface mass transfer coefficients in a standard FLEC Book Section In: Anson, M; Ko, J M; Lam, E S S (Ed.): Advances in Building Technology, pp. 1351 - 1357, Elsevier, Oxford, 2002, ISBN: 978-0-08-044100-9. @incollection{NIU20021351,
title = {- The measurement of surface mass transfer coefficients in a standard FLEC},
author = {J L Niu and L Z Zhang and T K Wan},
editor = {M Anson and J M Ko and E S S Lam},
url = {http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780080441009501686},
doi = {https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-008044100-9/50168-6},
isbn = {978-0-08-044100-9},
year = {2002},
date = {2002-01-01},
booktitle = {Advances in Building Technology},
pages = {1351 - 1357},
publisher = {Elsevier},
address = {Oxford},
abstract = {Publisher Summary
Field and laboratory emission chamber (FLEC) is becoming a standard method to characterize pollutant emissions from building materials. This chapter examines the surface convective mass transfer coefficients in a standard FLEC. A cell employed for examination is composed of two parts—cap and lower cavity. The deepness of the lower cavity is 10mm. When testing, the material is placed on the bottom surface of the lower cavity and becomes an integral part of the emission cell. To investigate the mean and local mass transfer coefficients at different FLEC radius, five glass discs with thickness of 10mm and diameters ranging from 130 to 148mm, are prepared. In each test, a disc is placed onto the bottom surface and distilled water is filled in the space between the cell wall and the disc. The chapter finally presents experimentally obtained mean Sherwood numbers with different radius glass discs.},
keywords = {},
pubstate = {published},
tppubtype = {incollection}
}
Publisher Summary
Field and laboratory emission chamber (FLEC) is becoming a standard method to characterize pollutant emissions from building materials. This chapter examines the surface convective mass transfer coefficients in a standard FLEC. A cell employed for examination is composed of two parts—cap and lower cavity. The deepness of the lower cavity is 10mm. When testing, the material is placed on the bottom surface of the lower cavity and becomes an integral part of the emission cell. To investigate the mean and local mass transfer coefficients at different FLEC radius, five glass discs with thickness of 10mm and diameters ranging from 130 to 148mm, are prepared. In each test, a disc is placed onto the bottom surface and distilled water is filled in the space between the cell wall and the disc. The chapter finally presents experimentally obtained mean Sherwood numbers with different radius glass discs. |
2001
|
Zhu, Jiping; Cao, Xu-Liang; Beauchamp, Ray Determination of 2-butoxyethanol emissions from selected consumer products and its application in assessment of inhalation exposure associated with cleaning tasks Journal Article In: Environment International, vol. 26, no. 7, pp. 589 - 597, 2001, ISSN: 0160-4120. @article{ZHU2001589,
title = {Determination of 2-butoxyethanol emissions from selected consumer products and its application in assessment of inhalation exposure associated with cleaning tasks},
author = {Jiping Zhu and Xu-Liang Cao and Ray Beauchamp},
url = {http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0160412001000460},
doi = {https://doi.org/10.1016/S0160-4120(01)00046-0},
issn = {0160-4120},
year = {2001},
date = {2001-01-01},
journal = {Environment International},
volume = {26},
number = {7},
pages = {589 - 597},
abstract = {Consumer products are important sources of human exposure to certain chemicals. Recent regulatory requirements for assessing human exposure to three glycol ethers, namely 2-methoxyethanol (ME), 2-ethoxyethanol (EE) and 2-butoxyethanol (BE), have prompted the investigation of these chemicals in consumer products and their emission characteristics. Thirteen products were selected for investigation based on their potential of containing the chemicals. Headspace results indicated that ME and EE were not present in any of the 13 selected products, while BE was detected in the headspace samples of seven products, of which five were household cleaning agents. Other related compounds such as 2-hexyloxyethanol (HE) and 2-(2-butoxyethoxy)ethanol (BEE) were also detected in the headspace samples of some products. BE emissions from five cleaning related products were measured using a field and laboratory emission cell (FLEC) with its subunit to provide emission data for inhalation exposure assessment purposes. These products had initial emission factors ranging from 145 to 938 mg m−2 h−1 under the experimental conditions. It was found that the emission factor of BE was inversely proportional to the dilution factor of the products. A good relationship was established between the emission factor of BE and its concentrations in water-based products. Based on product use scenarios developed by US EPA and an assumed “standard room,” average daily inhalation exposure levels of a resident as a result of performing cleaning tasks were estimated to be 0.075 and 0.186 mg (kg b.w.)−1 day−1 for two all-purpose spray cleaners, and 0.004 and 0.006 mg (kg b.w.)−1 day−1 for two-spray glass cleaners, respectively.},
keywords = {Chamber, Constant emission, Consumer products, Glycol ethers, Use scenario},
pubstate = {published},
tppubtype = {article}
}
Consumer products are important sources of human exposure to certain chemicals. Recent regulatory requirements for assessing human exposure to three glycol ethers, namely 2-methoxyethanol (ME), 2-ethoxyethanol (EE) and 2-butoxyethanol (BE), have prompted the investigation of these chemicals in consumer products and their emission characteristics. Thirteen products were selected for investigation based on their potential of containing the chemicals. Headspace results indicated that ME and EE were not present in any of the 13 selected products, while BE was detected in the headspace samples of seven products, of which five were household cleaning agents. Other related compounds such as 2-hexyloxyethanol (HE) and 2-(2-butoxyethoxy)ethanol (BEE) were also detected in the headspace samples of some products. BE emissions from five cleaning related products were measured using a field and laboratory emission cell (FLEC) with its subunit to provide emission data for inhalation exposure assessment purposes. These products had initial emission factors ranging from 145 to 938 mg m−2 h−1 under the experimental conditions. It was found that the emission factor of BE was inversely proportional to the dilution factor of the products. A good relationship was established between the emission factor of BE and its concentrations in water-based products. Based on product use scenarios developed by US EPA and an assumed “standard room,” average daily inhalation exposure levels of a resident as a result of performing cleaning tasks were estimated to be 0.075 and 0.186 mg (kg b.w.)−1 day−1 for two all-purpose spray cleaners, and 0.004 and 0.006 mg (kg b.w.)−1 day−1 for two-spray glass cleaners, respectively. |
Ilgen, Elke; Levsen, Karsten; Angerer, Jürgen; Schneider, Peter; Heinrich, Joachim; Wichmann, H. -Erich Aromatic hydrocarbons in the atmospheric environment – Part II: univariate and multivariate analysis and case studies of indoor concentrations Journal Article In: Atmospheric Environment, vol. 35, no. 7, pp. 1253 - 1264, 2001, ISSN: 1352-2310. @article{ILGEN20011253,
title = {Aromatic hydrocarbons in the atmospheric environment – Part II: univariate and multivariate analysis and case studies of indoor concentrations},
author = {Elke Ilgen and Karsten Levsen and Jürgen Angerer and Peter Schneider and Joachim Heinrich and H.-Erich Wichmann},
url = {http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1352231000004908},
doi = {https://doi.org/10.1016/S1352-2310(00)00490-8},
issn = {1352-2310},
year = {2001},
date = {2001-01-01},
journal = {Atmospheric Environment},
volume = {35},
number = {7},
pages = {1253 - 1264},
abstract = {The concentrations of the aromatic hydrocarbons benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene and the isomeric xylenes (BTEX) have been determined in the indoor air of 115 private non-smoker homes (∼380 individual rooms) situated in areas with an extreme traffic situation, i.e. in city streets (street canyons) with high traffic density and in rural areas with hardly any traffic at all. The influence of the traffic on the indoor concentration was apparent in the high traffic area. In order to identify other factors influencing the BTEX concentrations, the data and additional questionnaires were analyzed by univariate and multivariate analysis. The analysis was supplemented by some case studies. It is shown that meteorology (the seasons), the type of room (e.g. living room versus bedroom), the ventilation and, in particular, garages in the house strongly influence the indoor concentration of BTEX. Thus, the indoor BTEX level is significantly higher in winter than in summer. Moreover, garages with a connecting door to the living quarters lead to high indoor concentrations of aromatic hydrocarbons in these rooms. In addition, the storage of solvents and hobby materials, and also the presence of smoking guests increase the BTEX level. If rooms are directly heated by coal or wood, the BTEX level is higher compared to the use of gas heating. Surprisingly, no correlation was found between the building materials used and the BTEX level. Case studies were carried out for two homes with an integrated garage (and a connecting door to the living rooms) and for seven homes where redecoration work was carried out during sampling. In both instances, a pronounced increase was observed in the BTEX concentration.},
keywords = {Aromatic hydrocarbons, Benzene, indoor, Multivariate analysis, Sources},
pubstate = {published},
tppubtype = {article}
}
The concentrations of the aromatic hydrocarbons benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene and the isomeric xylenes (BTEX) have been determined in the indoor air of 115 private non-smoker homes (∼380 individual rooms) situated in areas with an extreme traffic situation, i.e. in city streets (street canyons) with high traffic density and in rural areas with hardly any traffic at all. The influence of the traffic on the indoor concentration was apparent in the high traffic area. In order to identify other factors influencing the BTEX concentrations, the data and additional questionnaires were analyzed by univariate and multivariate analysis. The analysis was supplemented by some case studies. It is shown that meteorology (the seasons), the type of room (e.g. living room versus bedroom), the ventilation and, in particular, garages in the house strongly influence the indoor concentration of BTEX. Thus, the indoor BTEX level is significantly higher in winter than in summer. Moreover, garages with a connecting door to the living quarters lead to high indoor concentrations of aromatic hydrocarbons in these rooms. In addition, the storage of solvents and hobby materials, and also the presence of smoking guests increase the BTEX level. If rooms are directly heated by coal or wood, the BTEX level is higher compared to the use of gas heating. Surprisingly, no correlation was found between the building materials used and the BTEX level. Case studies were carried out for two homes with an integrated garage (and a connecting door to the living rooms) and for seven homes where redecoration work was carried out during sampling. In both instances, a pronounced increase was observed in the BTEX concentration. |
2000
|
Matlok, S; Kildesø, J; Larsen, P S Measuring the release of particles from indoor surfaces Journal Article In: Journal of Aerosol Science, vol. 31, pp. 486 - 487, 2000, ISSN: 0021-8502, (European Aerosol Conference 2000). @article{MATLOK2000486,
title = {Measuring the release of particles from indoor surfaces},
author = {S Matlok and J Kildesø and P S Larsen},
url = {http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0021850200904993},
doi = {https://doi.org/10.1016/S0021-8502(00)90499-3},
issn = {0021-8502},
year = {2000},
date = {2000-01-01},
journal = {Journal of Aerosol Science},
volume = {31},
pages = {486 - 487},
note = {European Aerosol Conference 2000},
keywords = {Indoor environment, Resuspension, Surfaces},
pubstate = {published},
tppubtype = {article}
}
|
Bibliography section Journal Article In: Journal of Chromatography A, vol. 900, no. 1, pp. B279 - B406, 2000, ISSN: 0021-9673. @article{2000B279,
title = {Bibliography section},
url = {http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0021967300007974},
doi = {https://doi.org/10.1016/S0021-9673(00)00797-4},
issn = {0021-9673},
year = {2000},
date = {2000-01-01},
journal = {Journal of Chromatography A},
volume = {900},
number = {1},
pages = {B279 - B406},
keywords = {},
pubstate = {published},
tppubtype = {article}
}
|
1999
|
Meininghaus, Roman; Salthammer, Tunga; Knöppel, Helmut Interaction of volatile organic compounds with indoor materials—a small-scale screening method Journal Article In: Atmospheric Environment, vol. 33, no. 15, pp. 2395 - 2401, 1999, ISSN: 1352-2310. @article{MEININGHAUS19992395,
title = {Interaction of volatile organic compounds with indoor materials—a small-scale screening method},
author = {Roman Meininghaus and Tunga Salthammer and Helmut Knöppel},
url = {http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1352231098003677},
doi = {https://doi.org/10.1016/S1352-2310(98)00367-7},
issn = {1352-2310},
year = {1999},
date = {1999-01-01},
journal = {Atmospheric Environment},
volume = {33},
number = {15},
pages = {2395 - 2401},
abstract = {Indoor air pollution caused by volatile organic compounds (VOCs) may affect the health and well-being of inhabitants. Uptake and release of these compounds by and from indoor materials alter their concentrations in indoor air: uptake will lower peak concentrations, whereas subsequent (slow) release at lower concentration levels will prolong the presence of VOCs in indoor air. An experimental set-up has been implemented where indoor materials are placed as a “membrane” separating two air compartments. Both compartments – consisting of Field and Laboratory Emission Cells FLECs – are constantly flushed with air, one air stream containing a mixture of 20 VOCs, and concentrations in both compartments are measured after 1 h. Ten materials usually covering extensive surfaces indoors were consecutively exposed to the vapour mixture at concentration levels typically found in indoor environments. Under the chosen experimental conditions, five of these materials exhibited a permeability high enough that VOCs could be detected on the other side. Mass transport of VOCs into and through indoor materials has therefore been confirmed by experiment. The set-up allows for a quick screening of indoor materials with respect to their sorption capacity and permeability.},
keywords = {FLEC, Indoor air, Mass transport, Permeability, Sink},
pubstate = {published},
tppubtype = {article}
}
Indoor air pollution caused by volatile organic compounds (VOCs) may affect the health and well-being of inhabitants. Uptake and release of these compounds by and from indoor materials alter their concentrations in indoor air: uptake will lower peak concentrations, whereas subsequent (slow) release at lower concentration levels will prolong the presence of VOCs in indoor air. An experimental set-up has been implemented where indoor materials are placed as a “membrane” separating two air compartments. Both compartments – consisting of Field and Laboratory Emission Cells FLECs – are constantly flushed with air, one air stream containing a mixture of 20 VOCs, and concentrations in both compartments are measured after 1 h. Ten materials usually covering extensive surfaces indoors were consecutively exposed to the vapour mixture at concentration levels typically found in indoor environments. Under the chosen experimental conditions, five of these materials exhibited a permeability high enough that VOCs could be detected on the other side. Mass transport of VOCs into and through indoor materials has therefore been confirmed by experiment. The set-up allows for a quick screening of indoor materials with respect to their sorption capacity and permeability. |
1998
|
Haghighat, Fariborz; Bellis, Lisa De Material emission rates: Literature review, and the impact of indoor air temperature and relative humidity Journal Article In: Building and Environment, vol. 33, no. 5, pp. 261 - 277, 1998, ISSN: 0360-1323. @article{HAGHIGHAT1998261,
title = {Material emission rates: Literature review, and the impact of indoor air temperature and relative humidity},
author = {Fariborz Haghighat and Lisa De Bellis},
url = {http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0360132397000607},
doi = {https://doi.org/10.1016/S0360-1323(97)00060-7},
issn = {0360-1323},
year = {1998},
date = {1998-01-01},
journal = {Building and Environment},
volume = {33},
number = {5},
pages = {261 - 277},
abstract = {An extensive literature review of research on the impact of indoor air conditions; temperature, relative humidity and surface air velocity on materials emission rates is presented. This paper also presents the results of an experimental work to study the impact of room air temperature and relative humidity on materials emission rates. The results indicate that both the temperature and relative humidity have a significant effect on the emissions from paint and varnish. In the case of varnish, the results were consistent with earlier results. However, the paint results show inconsistent emission behaviour. Further, for both materials, the individual compounds did not necessarily follow the same trend established for the TVOC.},
keywords = {},
pubstate = {published},
tppubtype = {article}
}
An extensive literature review of research on the impact of indoor air conditions; temperature, relative humidity and surface air velocity on materials emission rates is presented. This paper also presents the results of an experimental work to study the impact of room air temperature and relative humidity on materials emission rates. The results indicate that both the temperature and relative humidity have a significant effect on the emissions from paint and varnish. In the case of varnish, the results were consistent with earlier results. However, the paint results show inconsistent emission behaviour. Further, for both materials, the individual compounds did not necessarily follow the same trend established for the TVOC. |
Wolkoff, Peder; Schneider, Thomas; Kildesø, Jan; Degerth, Ritva; Jaroszewski, Margarethe; Schunk, Hannelore Risk in cleaning: chemical and physical exposure Journal Article In: Science of The Total Environment, vol. 215, no. 1, pp. 135 - 156, 1998, ISSN: 0048-9697. @article{WOLKOFF1998135,
title = {Risk in cleaning: chemical and physical exposure},
author = {Peder Wolkoff and Thomas Schneider and Jan Kildesø and Ritva Degerth and Margarethe Jaroszewski and Hannelore Schunk},
url = {http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0048969798001107},
doi = {https://doi.org/10.1016/S0048-9697(98)00110-7},
issn = {0048-9697},
year = {1998},
date = {1998-01-01},
journal = {Science of The Total Environment},
volume = {215},
number = {1},
pages = {135 - 156},
abstract = {Cleaning is a large enterprise involving a large fraction of the workforce worldwide. A broad spectrum of cleaning agents has been developed to facilitate dust and dirt removal, for disinfection and surface maintenance. The cleaning agents are used in large quantities throughout the world. Although a complex pattern of exposure to cleaning agents and resulting health problems, such as allergies and asthma, are reported among cleaners, only a few surveys of this type of product have been performed. This paper gives a broad introduction to cleaning agents and the impact of cleaning on cleaners, occupants of indoor environments, and the quality of cleaning. Cleaning agents are usually grouped into different product categories according to their technical functions and the purpose of their use (e.g. disinfectants and surface care products). The paper also indicates the adverse health and comfort effects associated with the use of these agents in connection with the cleaning process. The paper identifies disinfectants as the most hazardous group of cleaning agents. Cleaning agents contain evaporative and non-evaporative substances. The major toxicologically significant constituents of the former are volatile organic compounds (VOCs), defined as substances with boiling points in the range of 0°C to about 400°C. Although laboratory emission testing has shown many VOCs with quite different time-concentration profiles, few field studies have been carried out measuring the exposure of cleaners. However, both field studies and emission testing indicate that the use of cleaning agents results in a temporal increase in the overall VOC level. This increase may occur during the cleaning process and thus it can enhance the probability of increased short-term exposure of the cleaners. However, the increased levels can also be present after the cleaning and result in an overall increased VOC level that can possibly affect the indoor air quality (IAQ) perceived by occupants. The variety and duration of the emissions depend inter alia on the use of fragrances and high boiling VOCs. Some building materials appear to increase their VOC emission through wet cleaning and thus may affect the IAQ. Particles and dirt contain a great variety of both volatile and non-volatile substances, including allergens. While the volatile fraction can consist of more than 200 different VOCs including formaldehyde, the non-volatile fraction can contain considerable amounts (>0.5%) of fatty acid salts and tensides (e.g. linear alkyl benzene sulphonates). The level of these substances can be high immediately after the cleaning process, but few studies have been conducted concerning this problem. The substances partly originate from the use of cleaning agents. Both types are suspected to be airway irritants. Cleaning activities generate dust, mostly by resuspension, but other occupant activities may also resuspend dust over longer periods of time. Personal sampling of VOCs and airborne dust gives higher results than stationary sampling. International bodies have proposed air sampling strategies. A variety of field sampling techniques for VOC and surface particle sampling is listed.},
keywords = {Cleaning agents, Indoor air quality, Particles, Volatile organic compounds},
pubstate = {published},
tppubtype = {article}
}
Cleaning is a large enterprise involving a large fraction of the workforce worldwide. A broad spectrum of cleaning agents has been developed to facilitate dust and dirt removal, for disinfection and surface maintenance. The cleaning agents are used in large quantities throughout the world. Although a complex pattern of exposure to cleaning agents and resulting health problems, such as allergies and asthma, are reported among cleaners, only a few surveys of this type of product have been performed. This paper gives a broad introduction to cleaning agents and the impact of cleaning on cleaners, occupants of indoor environments, and the quality of cleaning. Cleaning agents are usually grouped into different product categories according to their technical functions and the purpose of their use (e.g. disinfectants and surface care products). The paper also indicates the adverse health and comfort effects associated with the use of these agents in connection with the cleaning process. The paper identifies disinfectants as the most hazardous group of cleaning agents. Cleaning agents contain evaporative and non-evaporative substances. The major toxicologically significant constituents of the former are volatile organic compounds (VOCs), defined as substances with boiling points in the range of 0°C to about 400°C. Although laboratory emission testing has shown many VOCs with quite different time-concentration profiles, few field studies have been carried out measuring the exposure of cleaners. However, both field studies and emission testing indicate that the use of cleaning agents results in a temporal increase in the overall VOC level. This increase may occur during the cleaning process and thus it can enhance the probability of increased short-term exposure of the cleaners. However, the increased levels can also be present after the cleaning and result in an overall increased VOC level that can possibly affect the indoor air quality (IAQ) perceived by occupants. The variety and duration of the emissions depend inter alia on the use of fragrances and high boiling VOCs. Some building materials appear to increase their VOC emission through wet cleaning and thus may affect the IAQ. Particles and dirt contain a great variety of both volatile and non-volatile substances, including allergens. While the volatile fraction can consist of more than 200 different VOCs including formaldehyde, the non-volatile fraction can contain considerable amounts (>0.5%) of fatty acid salts and tensides (e.g. linear alkyl benzene sulphonates). The level of these substances can be high immediately after the cleaning process, but few studies have been conducted concerning this problem. The substances partly originate from the use of cleaning agents. Both types are suspected to be airway irritants. Cleaning activities generate dust, mostly by resuspension, but other occupant activities may also resuspend dust over longer periods of time. Personal sampling of VOCs and airborne dust gives higher results than stationary sampling. International bodies have proposed air sampling strategies. A variety of field sampling techniques for VOC and surface particle sampling is listed. |
Yu, Chuck; Crump, Derrick A review of the emission of VOCs from polymeric materials used in buildings Journal Article In: Building and Environment, vol. 33, no. 6, pp. 357 - 374, 1998, ISSN: 0360-1323. @article{YU1998357,
title = {A review of the emission of VOCs from polymeric materials used in buildings},
author = {Chuck Yu and Derrick Crump},
url = {http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0360132397000553},
doi = {https://doi.org/10.1016/S0360-1323(97)00055-3},
issn = {0360-1323},
year = {1998},
date = {1998-01-01},
journal = {Building and Environment},
volume = {33},
number = {6},
pages = {357 - 374},
abstract = {Building and furnishing materials and consumers products are important sources of formaldehyde and other volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in the indoor environment. The emission from materials is usually continuous and may last for many years in a building. The available evidence indicates that VOCs can cause adverse health effects to the building occupants and may contribute to symptoms of ‘Sick Building Syndrome’. Control of VOC emission should increasingly become an important consideration for the design and manufacture of polymeric materials used in buildings. The EC Construction Products Directive ‘Essential Requirements’ set a framework for limiting the use of materials that could pose a health risk to building occupants. Furthermore, the on-going development of voluntary labelling schemes and data bases of material emissions that could be used by building designers, should further strengthen the demand for ‘low VOC emitting’ products. This paper reviews available information about the emission of VOCs from polymeric building materials, the level of emissions in the indoor environment and the requirements for testing of the materials.},
keywords = {},
pubstate = {published},
tppubtype = {article}
}
Building and furnishing materials and consumers products are important sources of formaldehyde and other volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in the indoor environment. The emission from materials is usually continuous and may last for many years in a building. The available evidence indicates that VOCs can cause adverse health effects to the building occupants and may contribute to symptoms of ‘Sick Building Syndrome’. Control of VOC emission should increasingly become an important consideration for the design and manufacture of polymeric materials used in buildings. The EC Construction Products Directive ‘Essential Requirements’ set a framework for limiting the use of materials that could pose a health risk to building occupants. Furthermore, the on-going development of voluntary labelling schemes and data bases of material emissions that could be used by building designers, should further strengthen the demand for ‘low VOC emitting’ products. This paper reviews available information about the emission of VOCs from polymeric building materials, the level of emissions in the indoor environment and the requirements for testing of the materials. |
Wolkoff, Peder Impact of air velocity, temperature, humidity, and air on long-term voc emissions from building products Journal Article In: Atmospheric Environment, vol. 32, no. 14, pp. 2659 - 2668, 1998, ISSN: 1352-2310. @article{WOLKOFF19982659,
title = {Impact of air velocity, temperature, humidity, and air on long-term voc emissions from building products},
author = {Peder Wolkoff},
url = {http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1352231097004020},
doi = {https://doi.org/10.1016/S1352-2310(97)00402-0},
issn = {1352-2310},
year = {1998},
date = {1998-01-01},
journal = {Atmospheric Environment},
volume = {32},
number = {14},
pages = {2659 - 2668},
abstract = {The emissions of two volatile organic compounds (VOCs) of concern from five building products (BPs) were measured in the field and laboratory emission cell (FLEC) up to 250d. The BPs (VOCs selected on the basis of abundance and low human odor thresholds) were: nylon carpet with latex backing (2-ethylhexanol, 4-phenylcyclohexene), PVC flooring (2-ethylhexanol, phenol), floor varnish on pretreated beechwood parquet (butyl acetate, N-methylpyrrolidone), sealant (hexane, dimethyloctanols), and waterborne wall paint on gypsum board (1,2-propandiol, Texanol). Ten different climate conditions were tested: four different air velocities from ca. 1cms-1 to ca. 9cms-1, three different temperatures (23, 35, and 60°C), two different relative humidities (0% and 50% RH), and pure nitrogen instead of clean air supply. Additionally, two sample specimen and two different batches were compared for repeatability and homogeneity. The VOCs were sampled on Tenax TA and determined by thermal desorption and gas chromatography (FID). Quantification was carried out by individual calibration of each VOC of concern. Concentration/time profiles of the selected VOCs (i.e. their concentration decay curves over time) in a standard room were used for comparison. Primary source emissions were not affected by the air velocity after a few days to any great extent. Both the temperature and relative humidity affected the emission rates, but depended strongly on the type of BP and type of VOC. Secondary (oxidative) source emissions were only observed for the PVC and for dimethyloctanols from the sealant. The time to reach a given concentration (emission rate) appears to be a good approach for future interlaboratory comparisons of BP’s VOC emissions.},
keywords = {Air velocity, building products, emission testing, FLEC, relative humidity, repeatability, temperature, VOCs (volatile organic compounds)},
pubstate = {published},
tppubtype = {article}
}
The emissions of two volatile organic compounds (VOCs) of concern from five building products (BPs) were measured in the field and laboratory emission cell (FLEC) up to 250d. The BPs (VOCs selected on the basis of abundance and low human odor thresholds) were: nylon carpet with latex backing (2-ethylhexanol, 4-phenylcyclohexene), PVC flooring (2-ethylhexanol, phenol), floor varnish on pretreated beechwood parquet (butyl acetate, N-methylpyrrolidone), sealant (hexane, dimethyloctanols), and waterborne wall paint on gypsum board (1,2-propandiol, Texanol). Ten different climate conditions were tested: four different air velocities from ca. 1cms-1 to ca. 9cms-1, three different temperatures (23, 35, and 60°C), two different relative humidities (0% and 50% RH), and pure nitrogen instead of clean air supply. Additionally, two sample specimen and two different batches were compared for repeatability and homogeneity. The VOCs were sampled on Tenax TA and determined by thermal desorption and gas chromatography (FID). Quantification was carried out by individual calibration of each VOC of concern. Concentration/time profiles of the selected VOCs (i.e. their concentration decay curves over time) in a standard room were used for comparison. Primary source emissions were not affected by the air velocity after a few days to any great extent. Both the temperature and relative humidity affected the emission rates, but depended strongly on the type of BP and type of VOC. Secondary (oxidative) source emissions were only observed for the PVC and for dimethyloctanols from the sealant. The time to reach a given concentration (emission rate) appears to be a good approach for future interlaboratory comparisons of BP’s VOC emissions. |
Uhde, E; Borgschulte, A; Salthammer, T Characterization of the field and laboratory emission cell—FLEC: Flow field and air velocities Journal Article In: Atmospheric Environment, vol. 32, no. 4, pp. 773 - 781, 1998, ISSN: 1352-2310. @article{UHDE1998773,
title = {Characterization of the field and laboratory emission cell—FLEC: Flow field and air velocities},
author = {E Uhde and A Borgschulte and T Salthammer},
url = {http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1352231097003452},
doi = {https://doi.org/10.1016/S1352-2310(97)00345-2},
issn = {1352-2310},
year = {1998},
date = {1998-01-01},
journal = {Atmospheric Environment},
volume = {32},
number = {4},
pages = {773 - 781},
abstract = {Abstract
The Field and Laboratory Emission Cell (FLEC) has been designed for VOC emission testing of material surfaces. Knowledge about the air flow field in the cell compartment is highly desired, as the air velocity at the sample surface may considerably influence the emission behaviour. A simple mathematical approach of flow theory predicted an unevenly distributed air flow into the FLEC. This could be confirmed by air velocity measurements using a self-constructed hot-wire anemometer. With a total flow of 250 ml min−1, air velocities measured at the surface ranged from ⩽ 0.1 to 0.9 cm s−1. A surface area of very low air velocities was detected in the FLEC centre with a radius of ≈20 mm. A VOC emission test using a simulated punctual source yielded different emission rates at different locations in the cell compartment.},
keywords = {Air velocity, Chambers, emission rate, FLEC, flow field, VOC},
pubstate = {published},
tppubtype = {article}
}
Abstract
The Field and Laboratory Emission Cell (FLEC) has been designed for VOC emission testing of material surfaces. Knowledge about the air flow field in the cell compartment is highly desired, as the air velocity at the sample surface may considerably influence the emission behaviour. A simple mathematical approach of flow theory predicted an unevenly distributed air flow into the FLEC. This could be confirmed by air velocity measurements using a self-constructed hot-wire anemometer. With a total flow of 250 ml min−1, air velocities measured at the surface ranged from ⩽ 0.1 to 0.9 cm s−1. A surface area of very low air velocities was detected in the FLEC centre with a radius of ≈20 mm. A VOC emission test using a simulated punctual source yielded different emission rates at different locations in the cell compartment. |
1997
|
Clausen, Per Axel; Wolkoff, Peder Degradation products of Tenax TA formed during sampling and thermal desorption analysis: Indicators of reactive species indoors Journal Article In: Atmospheric Environment, vol. 31, no. 5, pp. 715 - 725, 1997, ISSN: 1352-2310. @article{AXELCLAUSEN1997715,
title = {Degradation products of Tenax TA formed during sampling and thermal desorption analysis: Indicators of reactive species indoors},
author = {Per Axel Clausen and Peder Wolkoff},
url = {http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1352231096002300},
doi = {https://doi.org/10.1016/S1352-2310(96)00230-0},
issn = {1352-2310},
year = {1997},
date = {1997-01-01},
journal = {Atmospheric Environment},
volume = {31},
number = {5},
pages = {715 - 725},
abstract = {Analyses of indoor air samples of semivolatile organic compounds (SVOCs) from five offices in two office buildings, a school classroom, and a room in a day-care center were generally strongly influenced by artifact formation. In the laboratory, the major artifacts could be produced by sampling mixtures of O3, NO2, and limonene in air on the sorbent, Tenax TA. Several SVOCs from O3 degradation of Tenax TA were detected, but only few were identified. The NO2 degradation of Tenax TA analyzed by thermal desorption and gas chromatography (TD-GC) almost exclusively formed 2,6-diphenyl-p-benzoquinone (DPQ) and 2,6-diphenyl-p-hydroquinone (DPHQ). The NO2/Tenax TA reaction could be calibrated, thus the NO2 concentration could be determined simultaneously with a SVOC measurement. However, the results indicated that DPQ may be reduced to DPHQ during TD-GC analysis by oxidation of other compounds adsorbed to Tenax TA. Sampling an air mixture of O3 in excess of limonene on Tenax TA followed by TD-GC analysis exclusively produced DPHQ. O3 alone produced neither DPQ nor DPHQ. It was found that reactive species (possibly Criegee biradicals and/or other organic radicals) from the O3/limonene :reaction were responsible for the production of DPHQ from Tenax TA. The results indicated that Tenax TA can be used as a trapping agent for some radicals by analysis of the DPQ/DPHQ formation. The present data were not sufficient to obtain evidence for degradation of Tenax TA by other radicals than NO and NO2 in indoor SVOC samples. However, the DPQ/DPHQ ratio indicated that DPHQ has been formed from DPQ by oxidation of other adsorbed compounds in some of the samples.},
keywords = {},
pubstate = {published},
tppubtype = {article}
}
Analyses of indoor air samples of semivolatile organic compounds (SVOCs) from five offices in two office buildings, a school classroom, and a room in a day-care center were generally strongly influenced by artifact formation. In the laboratory, the major artifacts could be produced by sampling mixtures of O3, NO2, and limonene in air on the sorbent, Tenax TA. Several SVOCs from O3 degradation of Tenax TA were detected, but only few were identified. The NO2 degradation of Tenax TA analyzed by thermal desorption and gas chromatography (TD-GC) almost exclusively formed 2,6-diphenyl-p-benzoquinone (DPQ) and 2,6-diphenyl-p-hydroquinone (DPHQ). The NO2/Tenax TA reaction could be calibrated, thus the NO2 concentration could be determined simultaneously with a SVOC measurement. However, the results indicated that DPQ may be reduced to DPHQ during TD-GC analysis by oxidation of other compounds adsorbed to Tenax TA. Sampling an air mixture of O3 in excess of limonene on Tenax TA followed by TD-GC analysis exclusively produced DPHQ. O3 alone produced neither DPQ nor DPHQ. It was found that reactive species (possibly Criegee biradicals and/or other organic radicals) from the O3/limonene :reaction were responsible for the production of DPHQ from Tenax TA. The results indicated that Tenax TA can be used as a trapping agent for some radicals by analysis of the DPQ/DPHQ formation. The present data were not sufficient to obtain evidence for degradation of Tenax TA by other radicals than NO and NO2 in indoor SVOC samples. However, the DPQ/DPHQ ratio indicated that DPHQ has been formed from DPQ by oxidation of other adsorbed compounds in some of the samples. |
Weschler, Charles J; Shields, Helen C Potential reactions among indoor pollutants Journal Article In: Atmospheric Environment, vol. 31, no. 21, pp. 3487 - 3495, 1997, ISSN: 1352-2310. @article{WESCHLER19973487,
title = {Potential reactions among indoor pollutants},
author = {Charles J Weschler and Helen C Shields},
url = {http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1352231097002197},
doi = {https://doi.org/10.1016/S1352-2310(97)00219-7},
issn = {1352-2310},
year = {1997},
date = {1997-01-01},
journal = {Atmospheric Environment},
volume = {31},
number = {21},
pages = {3487 - 3495},
abstract = {Reactions among indoor pollutants can produce products that, otherwise, might not be present in an indoor environment. To be relevant in an indoor setting, a chemical reaction must occur within a time interval shorter than or comparable to the residence time for a packet of indoor air. At typical air exchange rates, the reactions that meet this criterion include those of ozone with nitric oxide, nitrogen dioxide, and selected unsaturated hydrocarbons; thermal decomposition of peroxyacyl nitrates; numerous free radical reactions; and selected heterogeneous processes. Stable products include aldehydes, ketones, carboxylic acids and various organic nitrates. These reactions also generate free radicals, starting with the nitrate radical, Criegree biradicals, and peroxyacyl radicals, and leading to the hydroxyl, alkyl, alkylperoxy, hydroperoxy, and alkoxy radicals. Such radicals can react with other indoor species yielding additional aldehydes, ketones, carboxylic acids, dinitrates and peroxyacyl nitrates. Some of the potential products are known or suspected to be irritating (e.g. methacrolein, nonanoic acid, 1,2-propanediol dinitrate, peroxybenzoyl nitrate, and radical anions of the type [Cl… NO2]−) However, some of these same products are difficult to detect using the sampling and analysis techniques currently applied to indoor air.},
keywords = {},
pubstate = {published},
tppubtype = {article}
}
Reactions among indoor pollutants can produce products that, otherwise, might not be present in an indoor environment. To be relevant in an indoor setting, a chemical reaction must occur within a time interval shorter than or comparable to the residence time for a packet of indoor air. At typical air exchange rates, the reactions that meet this criterion include those of ozone with nitric oxide, nitrogen dioxide, and selected unsaturated hydrocarbons; thermal decomposition of peroxyacyl nitrates; numerous free radical reactions; and selected heterogeneous processes. Stable products include aldehydes, ketones, carboxylic acids and various organic nitrates. These reactions also generate free radicals, starting with the nitrate radical, Criegree biradicals, and peroxyacyl radicals, and leading to the hydroxyl, alkyl, alkylperoxy, hydroperoxy, and alkoxy radicals. Such radicals can react with other indoor species yielding additional aldehydes, ketones, carboxylic acids, dinitrates and peroxyacyl nitrates. Some of the potential products are known or suspected to be irritating (e.g. methacrolein, nonanoic acid, 1,2-propanediol dinitrate, peroxybenzoyl nitrate, and radical anions of the type [Cl… NO2]−) However, some of these same products are difficult to detect using the sampling and analysis techniques currently applied to indoor air. |
1996
|
Wolkoff, Peder; Nielsen, Peter A A new approach for indoor climate labeling of building materials—emission testing, modeling, and comfort evaluation Journal Article In: Atmospheric Environment, vol. 30, no. 15, pp. 2679 - 2689, 1996, ISSN: 1352-2310. @article{WOLKOFF19962679,
title = {A new approach for indoor climate labeling of building materials—emission testing, modeling, and comfort evaluation},
author = {Peder Wolkoff and Peter A Nielsen},
url = {http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/1352231095003231},
doi = {https://doi.org/10.1016/1352-2310(95)00323-1},
issn = {1352-2310},
year = {1996},
date = {1996-01-01},
journal = {Atmospheric Environment},
volume = {30},
number = {15},
pages = {2679 - 2689},
abstract = {A labeling system for building materials' primary emission of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) according to their impact on comfort and health has been developed and introduced in Denmark. The system unifies chemical emission testing over time (months), modeling (including a standard room and mathematical modeling of the emission profile, when necessary), and health evaluation. As a first step, the Danish system focuses on comfort, i.e. odor annoyance and mucous membrane irritation, because of their preponderance in the sick building syndrome reporting and the absence of other relevant data on indoor air related health effects. Two design criteria have been set: the labeling system shall be easily comprehensible and at the same time operational and dynamic. The principle is to determine the time value, t(Cm), required to reach the relevant indoor air value, Cm (presently, based on odor and mucous membrane irritation thresholds), in a standard room. Odor thresholds are used because they generally are at least one order of magnitude lower than mucous membrane irritation thresholds. t(Cm) is a measure of the period of time during which a new building material may cause indoor air quality problems, unless special precautions are made. The system may also be used for singular VOCs of which a specific health endpoint has been reported. The Danish labeling system is illustrated with the emission testing and comfort evaluation of two sealants using the Field and Laboratory Emission Cell (FLEC)},
keywords = {},
pubstate = {published},
tppubtype = {article}
}
A labeling system for building materials' primary emission of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) according to their impact on comfort and health has been developed and introduced in Denmark. The system unifies chemical emission testing over time (months), modeling (including a standard room and mathematical modeling of the emission profile, when necessary), and health evaluation. As a first step, the Danish system focuses on comfort, i.e. odor annoyance and mucous membrane irritation, because of their preponderance in the sick building syndrome reporting and the absence of other relevant data on indoor air related health effects. Two design criteria have been set: the labeling system shall be easily comprehensible and at the same time operational and dynamic. The principle is to determine the time value, t(Cm), required to reach the relevant indoor air value, Cm (presently, based on odor and mucous membrane irritation thresholds), in a standard room. Odor thresholds are used because they generally are at least one order of magnitude lower than mucous membrane irritation thresholds. t(Cm) is a measure of the period of time during which a new building material may cause indoor air quality problems, unless special precautions are made. The system may also be used for singular VOCs of which a specific health endpoint has been reported. The Danish labeling system is illustrated with the emission testing and comfort evaluation of two sealants using the Field and Laboratory Emission Cell (FLEC) |
